Equipment: Selection, Preparation, Care

As with every other medium of pictorial expression, it is obvious that one entering the field of watercolor painting for the first time should get to know, before rushing into premature attempts at picture making, something of the customary materials -- the tools of his new "trade." Not only must he learn what the market has to offer, but he must carry out a few exploratory experiments with each of several essential items in order to discover something of its possibilities and limitations.

We have have seen from the Author's Note that a great virtue of watercolor painting is that it calls for but few materials. These may be purchased almost anywhere; even the best are relatively inexpensive. They are easy to transport and to store; they deteriorate but little with time (though paints in tubes will gradually harden); they are clean to use. Also, finished paintings, unlike those done in oil, are dry in a matter of minutes, so can be carried and stored without trouble. Nor does watercolor work (at any state of progress) smudge or dust off like that done with many forms of pencils, crayons, charcoal, and pastels. All of which makes watercolor a particularly convenient medium when working outdoors.

Colors -- Watercolor paints are available in several forms. First come the hard or semisoft types sold in pans or as "buttons" (as in many of the student watercolor sets); these must be softened with water each time they are used. Then we have the moist types put in tubes; these are preferred by most watercolor artists and are what we recommend. Considerably less familiar are powdered colors, "sticks" from which color can be rubbed, papers coated with soluble pigments, etc. Each type has its champions, though some of these last are for special purposes -- photo coloring, for example. Then there are jars of color, both dry and moist, most of them intended primarily for the poster artist or show card writer.

A great advantage of tube colors over those in cakes and pans is that each color comes from its tube clean and fresh. Tube colors also permit the quick preparation of amounts of color sufficient to coat large paper area. (It is discouragingly slow, by way of contrast, to have to soften enough color from pans or buttons to cover any but the smaller areas of one's work.) Whatever one's decision as to kind of paint, almost invariably considerable water must be added, the quantity depending on the depth of tone required. For dark or brilliant hues, relatively little water is needed. For most light tints, the color is greatly diluted.

Make of Colors -- As to make, practically every painter ultimately develops a personal preference. In today's stiff competition it seems safe to assume that any of the well-known brands will give satisfaction. Your choice may depend on what your dealer has to offer, though most dealers carry several lines. Or perhaps some teacher or artist friend will be the one to determine your choice. The main thing is to realize that, whatever the make, you get just about what you pay for, so the cheaper colors -- sometimes known as "students' colors" -- cannot be expected to be as satisfactory in the long run as those made for professional use. Professionals employ the students' colors to some extent, however, and many of them are capable of perfectly satisfactory work. Yet this work may be more likely to fade or otherwise deteriorate with time than that done with the better grades.

Eventually you may want to experiment for yourself with different makes and grades in order to determine the ones best suited to you. On the whole, though, it will prove safer to stick to one make once you are familiar with it, for you will gradually learn exactly what to expect from every color of that particular make. Artists often learn with surprise and regret that a given color of one make may be quite different in hue or consistency from some other manufacturer's product bearing the same or similar name. In other words, if an artist were forced to paint without his own familiar colors, for a while he would find himself considerably handicapped.

Permanence of Colors -- Regardless of brand or cost, not all watercolor paints are permanent. Some will fade badly on long exposure to light, some very little, and some to no perceptible degree. Several manufacturers very wisely list their colors accordingly, so the artist has something to guide him. The more fugitive colors may do for work of a temporary nature, though their use at any time is questionable, for one never knows how long he may wish to preserve even the most casual sketch or color note. (Later we shall offer simple means by which the artist can test his own colors for fading.)

It should perhaps be pointed out that certain colors, when mixed one with another, set up harmful chemical reactions. Apparently few painters worry about this, or take the trouble to learn dangerous combinations, but the more knowledge of this incompatibility will at least help to explain why some color areas in one's painting change greatly with the passage of time.

While the day has not yet arrived when we can think of all watercolor paints as permanent, there has nevertheless been a great improvement over the years. Watercolor paintings done today have a far greater chance of surviving unfaded than did those of not too long ago. When it is realized that artists' paints come from all sorts of sources from all over the world, some animal, some vegetable, and some mineral, it is not hard to see what a variety of problems face the manufacturer. Today, greater and greater reliance is placed on the synthetic product created in the chemist's laboratory. Aside from all other considerations, several of these new colors are different in appearance from any previously available, some being extremely beautiful.

Number of Colors -- While at times it proves convenient to have quite a number of coloors on hand -- many artists prefer from fifteen to twenty-five -- one seldom utilizes more than eight or ten on a single painting, and it is surprising how much can be accomplished with but three or four. Nearly every color normally found in nature can be approximated, if not precisely matched, through mixtures of three basic colors: red, yellow, and blue. These three colors are, therefore, frequently referred to as "primary" colors. (These must not be confused with the light primaries of the physicist, red, green, and blue-violet.) This holds true for all such color media as oils, watercolors, dyes, and inks. All of the color work in this book, for instance, was printed with red, yellow, and blue inks, plus black for greater depth of tone.

(It is not a bad thing, by the way, to experiment for a while with three such watercolor primaries -- most manufacturers make them under one name or another. For all-around use, however, these "spectrum" hues are not as valuable as some others because they are of necessity extremely brilliant. Most colors in nature are not garish; therefore, they can best be interpreted with paints which are to an extent already neutralized by the manufacturer. Yet when it come to painting flowers in sunshine, sunset scenes, or any other unusually colorful subject matter, these brilliant paints have a very definite place.)

Recommended Lists -- As to the precise colors to buy -- the "palette" which one uses -- artist seldom agree. Henry Gasser, who not only is an outstanding painter but has for years taught and demonstrated watercolor, says: "My palette varies according to the subject, but I generally use from eight to twelve colors. They are:

Cadmium yellow, light and deep
Cadmium red, light
Yellow ochre
Burnt sienna
Alizarin crimson
Indian red
French ultramarine (blue)
Viridian (green)
Payne's gray
Ivory black

"Colors such as cerulean blue, vermilion, Davy's gray and ochre are very helpful in controlling a wash when working on a wet surface."

Dong Kingman, who, like Gasser, needs no introduction to our Watson-Guptill audience, offers this: "I choose about nine tubes of the best-made watercolor. I prefer it in the tube for it keeps fresher that way." The colors are:

Cadmium yellow, light
Cadmium yellow, deep
Cadmium red, light
Alizarin crimson
Prussian blue
French ultramarine blue
Hooker's green #2
Burnt sienna
Lamp black

Jacob Getlar Smith, author of Watercolor Painting for the Beginner (Watson-Guptill) -- an excellent book which could well be read at this time -- offers the following considerably longer lists with the advice, "If you choose at least one from each group there will be at your command a range of colors flexible enough for any desired result. Asterisks (*) indicate suggested palette."

Group 1

*Cadmium yellow, pale or lightest
*Cadmium yellow, deep
*Cadmium orange
Aureolin

Group 2

*Cadmium red, light or lightest
*Cadmium red, deep
Scarlet vermilion
Vermilion
Rose madder (permanent only when not mixed with earth colors)

Group 3

Yellow ochre
*Raw sienna
Mars yellow

Group 4

*Raw umber
Burnt umber
*Burnt sienna

Group 5

Venetian red
*Indian red
Light red

Group 6

*Viridian
Oxide of chromium

Group 7

*Cerulean blue
Cobalt blue
*French ultramarine
Prussian blue

Group 8

Lamp black
*Ivory black
Mars black

Below we describe briefly some of the most popular colors; we repeat that not all manufacturers sell precisely the same hues under the same names. Perhaps we should also stress the fact that artists occasionally buy watercolor paints not for hue alone but because they contain sediment or possess other peculiarities which can prove extremely useful in producing "granular," "sediment" or "deposit" washes which are invaluable for certain purposes, as will be explained in a later chapter.

REDS

Alizarin crimson -- Everyone needs at least one good bright red. This particular color is sometimes employed as a primary in making color charts. It is also especially fine for producing purples or violets in mixture with such hues as French ultramarine and cerulean blue.

Rose madder -- A transparent color, somewhat more delicate than alizarin crimson. It is quite a favorite in painting flowers. Also mixes well with the blues.

Cadmium red -- This, or cadmium scarlet, is often used today in place of vermilion which has a tendency to blacken in impure air.

Light red: Indian red -- A pair of similar hues with many uses where a slightly neutral red is needed.

Burnt sienna -- This is on the border between red and brown. Mixed with French ultramarine it produces most interesting sediment washes, valuable in texture representation. An extremely versatile color.

YELLOWS

Auerolin -- A very bright, transparent color. A common choice as a primary in color mixing.

Cadmium yellow -- Another bright yellow, slightly opaque. Also used as a primary. Does not mix well with all colors, however.

Yellow ochre -- A great favorite. Not as brilliant as the previous two.

Raw sienna -- Similar to burnt sienna as an aid in obtaining sediment washes in mixtures.

Cadmium orange -- Bright.

Naples yellow -- Very appropraite for certain limited applications. Somewhat opaque.

BLUES

Phthalocyanine blue -- A bright color especially helpful in mixing greens. Various manufacturers sell this comparatively new hue under different names. It is gradually superseding Antwerp blue which is less permanent.

French ultramarine -- An excellent all-around color.

Cerulean blue : Cobalt blue -- Standard colors found on many palettes.

GREENS : BROWNS

A reasonably adequate range of greens can easily be mixed from blues and yellows. But among the well-liked ready-mixed greens, phthalocyanine green has become a popular choice. Viridian is also a favorite. Among the browns, common choices are burnt sienna (listed above), sepia, raw umber, and burnt umber.

WHITES : BLACKS

Chinese white has occasional uses, and one needs a good black or two, such as ivory black or lamp black.

Color Box -- Though a box for storing one's colors is not an absolute essential, it is certainly a convenience. But think twice before choosing yours, for there is a great difference in such boxes, and it is easy to throw your money away. Practically all boxes are of tin, black outside and white inside, but there the resemblance ends.

The beginner all too often buys a "fitted box" ("watercolor set") which contains an assortment of cheap colors (cake, tube, or button), and two or three inferior brushes. The cover has several depressions for mixing washes; also, there is often a flat surface on which to mix smaller amounts of color. Even if the box itself is good, these fitted boxes give one no choice as to either colors or brushes.

The more serious student, like the professional, often prefers to buy his box and colors separately. He will want a box large enough to accommodate at least fifteen or twenty tubes. Such a box is often provided with a palette-type cover which slides out to hold in the hand. This cover normally has many small "stalls" (one for each color) into which fresh paint may be squeezed as needed. The tubes remain in the box and so do not weigh down the palette. Both the tubes and the colors in the stalls are usually arranged by the artist in some logical way, perhaps in a "rainbow" or color wheel sequence such as we shall describe in a moment.

Color Cups -- Professional watercolorists use paint in such large quantities that, whatever their choide of box, they will at times need supplementary vessles in order to mix adequate amounts. Therefore, they buy some of the "nested" cups or saucers made for that purpose, or they visit the kitchen utensil store for muffin tins or anything else which they think will serve; (These should preferably be white -- if of tin they may be lacquered by the artist -- so that hues can easily be judged. Small white plastic or glass vessels can sometimes be found.)

Water Containers -- In the studio, a white bowl, tin pail or other suitable vessel is essential. Outdoors, a container of water, preferably provided with a cover or stopper to prevent spilling, must be taken along unless one is certain to be near a supply. Some like a thermos bottle as this can hold enough water for both painting and drinking.

Palettes -- One of the greatest faults of the beginning aquarellist is timidity. He uses too little color. The limited accomodations of the typical color box do not encourage him to be as generous with his paint as he should. Therefore, if he can buy a watercolorist's palette made with ample depressions to contain all of his colors, plus sufficient space for mixing all but large quantities of color, it can prove not only a great convenience but a definite factor toward the improvement of his work.

Sometimes, however, an artist feels that small depressions in a palette are more of a nuisance than none. He chooses, therefore, a flat palette or some sort of round dish -- perhaps a dinner plate. Such a palette or circular utensil has an outstanding advantage: it permits the arrangement of most of one's hues more or less according to the spectrum, which makes it especially convenient when preparing such color charts or "wheels" as are often made when studying color mixing, matching, etc.

"Setting" the Palette -- Digging further into the arrangement of one's colors on the palette and in his color box, the main thing is to decide before too long on a good plan and then stick to it, because much time can be saved if one gets into the habit of organizing his colors always in the same way. While this circular grouping just pictured is good, especially during one's first experiments of the kind which we shall discuss in Chapter 3, some prefer other arrangements; there is no one way which is best.

Gradually an artist learns that he can advantageously use again and again certain pairs of colors in combination. He may find, for instance, that he likes to mix French blue and burnt sienna, or alizarin crimson and cerulean blue. it will therefore, be logical for him to have such pairs side by side on his palette for easy manipulation, so if he uses one plate for a wheel-like arrangement, he may eventually have a similar supplementary plate for these associated pairs.

Brushes -- These are particularly important. Cheap brushes usually prove a waste of money, so buy only the best; they will be a wise investment. You won't need many, and, given reasonable care, they will last a long time. Talk the whole thing over with your dealer, who can compare for you the different items in his stock. Of the several types commonly offered, artists differ as to preference. As we shall see later, choice will vary with method of working.

Red Sable Brushes -- Brushes of red sable are popular for many kinds of work. Of these, the round, sharply pointed ones are perhaps the most useful; some painters employ nothing else. A good sable brush of the round type should, by the way, be uniformly round, and should keep a sharp point at all times. Unlike the cheaper camel's-hair brush, which is flabby and fails to hold a point well, the red sable brush should be springy and resilient.

Sable brushes come in many sizes; manufacturers vary in their methods of designating such sizes. One needs at least three: small, medium and large. As a safe rule, he will always use the largest brush possible for any particular piece of work. Excepting for fine detail, the small ones require too frequent dipping and are likely to lead into finicky techniques. For all-around work, a fairly large brush is good.

For quick, bold sketching, and for laying big washes (as on skies or backgrounds), a huge brush is extremely useful, but costs so much in sable that one often feels forced to substitute something less expensive -- camel's hair or squirrel's hair.

There are special needs where flat, square-pointed sable brushes are even better than the round-pointed type. They are great timesavers, for instance, when it comes to the representation of buildings or similar subject matter where squarish forms predominate. A single stroke can represent a window shutter, the side of a chimney, or even a large roof area. Three or four of these are, therefore, well worth having; they could vary from 1/8" to 3/4" in width.

Bristle Brushes -- For certain techniques, and particularly for scrubbing out high lights or correcting faulty passages, bristle brushes such as are commonly used in oil painting -- which are much stiffer than sable brushes but otherwise look quite similar in form -- are just the thing. The flat ones appear to be generally preferred, though everything depends on purpose.

Care of Brushes -- As already mentioned, good brushes will give many years of service -- but only if they receive proper care. Rinse them frequently as you use them. For maximum service, wash them thoroughly with mild soap and warm water when you put them away. Shake each one out -- don't squeeze it -- so that it assumes a natural form. Don't let brushes stand on their hairs for long, or dry in cramped positions. Don't try to soften hardened watercolor paint on your palette or color box by scrubbing it vigorously with your best brush. And moths, by the way, are all too fond of expensive sable brushes!

For Field Trips -- For outdoor work generally, where one wishes compact yet adequate equipment, a metal box of the type made to accommodate fishing tackle or household carpenter's tools can also prove of great convenience, especially if large enough to hold practically all of one's paraphernalia excepting, of course, paper.

Paper -- Unlike oil paintings, which are normally done on canvas, watercolor pictures are customarily painted on paper. This is manufactured especially for the purpose, as it must be of exceptional quality.

Although there are a number of good American papers on the market (of a machine-made variety), a majority of discriminating watercolorists prefer -- at least for their best work -- almost any of the well-known imported papers, notably those from England, France, and Italy.

In what ways do imported papers excel? Being handmade of the very best rag stock, following methods passed down from father to son for hundreds of years (and apparently not practical in this country), they have properties of toughness, long life, surface texture, etc., which it seems cannot be matched in America's machine-made products. Therefore, get acquainted with some of these imported papers. They will at least give you a standard for judging others.

Watercolor paper vary in size, weight (thickness), and surface. As to size, the "imperial" sheet is a common one; this measures approximately 22" x 30". A slightly smaller sheet, the "royal," is about 19" x 24". The "double-elephant" is 27" x 40", while the "antiquarian" is 31" x 53". These are often halved or quartered by the artist or dealer to bring them to suitable picture size, though many paintings are made to the 22" X 30" dimension.

As to weight, sheets vary from a rather flimsy 72 lb. to an extremely thick and heavy 300 lb. The lighter papers are of course the cheaper ones; not only are they more likely to become punctured or torn but, in their natural state, they afford a less rigid surface which buckles annoyingly whenever water is applied. This makes mounting or stretching almost necessary, following methods which we shall investigate in a moment. Even the 72 lb. papers will stand considerable abuse if properly stretched or mounted.

Some watercolor papers are smooth -- "hot pressed" (HP) is the term. More popular surfaces, however, are (1) the medium "cold pressed" (CP), having a slight grain and (2) "rough" (R), with a heavier grain. These last two have an indescribably sympathetic texture, excellent to work upon and pleasing to the eye.

Which Side Up? -- Is there a right and wrong side to handmade paper? Strictly speaking, yes. If you hold a sheet to the light and can discover a watermark (usually the name of the paper) reading in the natural way -- that is, fron left to right -- the top (working surface) of the paper is facing you. So far as general use is concerned, it apparently makes little difference which side of a handmade sheet you paint on, but some machine-made papers reveal a noticeable difference between front and back, the former being far superior to the latter.

Mounting and Stretching -- The heaviest, and consequently most expensive, of the watercolor papers do not buckle badly when wet; they are often used "as is." The lighter ones, as mentioned above, must preferably be (1) mounted on heavy board, (2) "stretched" by any of several methods, or (3) made up by the manufacturer into solid blocks (pads), each containing a number of sheets.

Some papers can be purchased already mounted; once you have decided on a brand you merely ask for it in mounted form. Such mounted paper has two great advantages: it remains flat throughout the entire painting process, and is relatively easy to mat or frame. It is quite expensive, however, and, unless you place a high value on your time, it is cheaper to mount your own.

Here is a typical method of mounting: the selected paper is moistened until limp, with a sponge (or by soaking in water), when it is pasted evenly all over the back with some water-soluble adhesive such as drawing board paste, bookbinders' paste or diluted glue. It is then laid paste-side-down on heavy mounting board, previously dampened. Next, with a protective sheet of paper over it, it is rolled, scraped or brushed vigorously enough to force all air from between paper and mount, and promote uniform adhesion. It is then weighted down (as between two drawing boards loaded with books) where it can dry flat. This often takes several hours. The mount will buckle if removed before thoroughly dry.

This takes so long and results in so unyielding a surface that many watercolorists prefer to "stretch" their paper, as the following process is called. In stretching, only the edges of the paper are fastened down. There are several methods of going about this; every painter should master at least one.

In what is perhaps the simplest of these, the initial move is to assemble a wooden frame of the desired size, using for the purpose four of the stretcher stips sold for stretching canvas. This frame should be at least two inches smaller than the paper in both length and width. The next move is to saturate the paper until it has absorbed all the water it can hold. It is then laid flat on some clean, level surface and the frame placed upon it, centered to leave a uniform margin of paper all around. Working one edge at a time, this paper margin can now be turned up at right angles to the main surface of the paper and thumbtacked to the edges of the wooden frame, using tacks every two or three inches. Any extra paper can be trimmed away or folded onto the back of the frame and tacked. (When the paper is large enough in relation to the frame, it is sometimes folded to the back of the frame all around and thumbtacked there instead of along the edges. This practice insures a stronger job and is almost imperative when stretching large sheets, as they exert such a tension when drying that they may otherwise split or work loose, or pull the stretcher frame out of shape, thus slacking the paper.) As the paper dries, it gradually shrinks to drumhead smoothness. It is then ready for the artist. It will buckle to some extent each time he wets it (depending on its thickness), but will go flat again when dry. The finished painting should not be cut from the frame until it has dried for several hours, or it may wrinkle badly.

In another stretching method, favored by many, the thoroughly wet paper is first laid face up on a drawing board or sheet of heavy plywood. Heavy gummed tape is then used to fasten the paper to the board. The tape must run around the entire perimeter of the paper, equally overlapping both paper and board. The tape may be doubled or tripled for greater strength, especially if the paper is of sufficient size to indicate the possibility of developing excessive pull. As the sheet shrinks, watch the tape to make sure that it doesn't work loose. Rub it down repeatedly and reinforce it with thumbtacks if you think this advisable.

Sometimes -- especially for large paper -- still another stretching method is followed: the paper (in its original dry state) is first placed face up on a drawing board, and an inch or so is turned up at each edge so as to form a sort of paper pan. the paper surface -- the inside of the pan -- is now dampened with a sponge (not too wet). After the sheet has received several spongings, the turned-up edges are coated evenly on the outside with glue or other powerful adhesive (library paste seldom has the necessary strength). The edges are then pressed to the drawing board and any standing water is sopped up; the edges are next lightly rubbed down with the damp sponge. (Don't soak the edges too much on either the inside or the outside or they may fail to adhere.) As these edges swell enough to permit the entire paper to come flat, they should be rubbed to the board repeatedly with some such instrument as a knife handle. Thumbtacks may be added as a final precaution. When the painting is eventually completed and thoroughly dry, the paper is cut through (with a sharp razor blade) about an inch from the edge and lifted free, perfectly flat and smooth, ready for matting or framing. (The glued paper stips which remain on the board can later be soaked in water until they come loose, when they may easily be removed. Glue on the board can now be sponged away, leaving the board smooth and ready for the next stretch.)

There are several variations of these procedures, one of which is fully demonstrated in Chapter 2. With a little experience the reader will discover a method that works well for him, permitting him to stretch his paper tightly so that buckling is minimized as he paints and it becomes absolutely smooth when dry.

Why bother? -- Is all this effort absolutely needed? Must one so laboriously stretch his paper? No! Some artists -- including prominent ones -- never take the trouble. Yet, unless they choose a very heavy paper or employ what is known as a "dry" technique, using a minimum of water, they work under quite a handicap which takes a lot of knowledge to overcome. As their wet paint produces wrinkles on their unstretched paper, for instance, the pigment particles tend to float off the hills into the valleys. Unless these particles are redistributed by the brush or removed, they will dry there and, in the finished work, may reveal a definite trace of the original location of each wrinkle. In other words, the wrinkles not only have to be fought constantly as the work proceeds, but they may unpleasantly affect the appearance of the completed painting. This is only one of several negative factors involved when painting on "loose" paper, but enough to indicate the advisability of preparing in advance (at least for any effort of more than minor importance) the best possible working surface -- the mount or stretch.

Watercolor Blocks -- Many painters who don't mount or stretch their watercolor paper rely instead on prepared blocks, each consisting of quite a number of sheets (24 is common) glued by the manufacturer at all four edges. The artist of course paints first on the top sheet and then cuts this away, exposing the next, and so on. If the paper is sufficiently heavy, not too large, and securely fastened all around, the sheets may not buckle badly. Surely such blocks save the artist a lot of time, and are very compact and convenient, especially for work outdoors. They come in many sizes and several surfaces.

Clothespins and Such -- If unmounted or unstretched paper is used, it is customarily taped (at several points) or thumbtacked to a drawing board of suitable size -- plywood or one of the stiffer types of wallboard may be substituted. Some artists use the portfolio in which they keep their paper as a backing, temporarily fastening the paper to it with clothespins or heavy spring clips.

Easel: Drawing Table -- Customarily, the artist -- especially when working indoors -- uses a suitable easel or table to support the stretcher fram or board on which his paper has been mounted or strained. Don't make the mistake of buying the type of easel which accommodates a painting only in a vertical (or nearly vertical) position; that is, don't buy an easel designed for oil painting exclusively. Although occasional watercolorists can use this upright type of easel to advantage because they work rather "dry" (drawing their picture with brush strokes rather than painting it), most watercolorists work "wet" at least part of the time, applying their color in a liquid or semiliquid form. Such application calls for a support which is slanted only enough to permit "washes" of color to flow down the paper gradually, always under control of the brush. For this purpose, an incline of but five or ten degrees from the horizontal is usually ample.

For indoor work, one can manage very well with almost any stand or table which happens to be available. He merely lays his board, stretcher, or block of paper upon the table top, raising the far edge by means of some such support as a book or two. Still more convenient is a draughtsman's adjustable drawing tables, for this can easily be raised or lowered to any desired height and set at a convenient slope. A fairly satisfactory substitute is an adjustable "table easel." This is placed on a table top.

When painting outdoors, a folding easel, being portable, will usually be selected, but it should be of a type permitting the firm support of the paper in the desired, almost flat position. Your dealer can doubtless supply you with something of this general nature. An "all-purpose" easel is good for both watercolor and oil, indoors and out. Be sure that the easel you buy is rigid, and that the legs are not only sturdy but adjustable to the irregularities of the ground. Any metal should be rust-resisting.

Some artists never bother with an easel when painting in the open. They lay the board or frame which supports their painting nearly flat on the ground -- sometimes between their feet --  or support it on some such thing as a stump, log, box, or wall.

Sketching Stools -- If one is to work in comfort, he will find a folding sketching stool of great convenience. These come in several styles, in metal or wood, with the seats usually of canvas. (A second stool, by the way, can be used in place of an easel to support one's paper.)

Artist's Umbrella : Sun Glasses -- Whether you prefer, for outdoor work, to sit in the shade, or to create your own shade by taking along an umbrella, is of course a matter of choice. Don't use a bright-colored umbrella; if you do, the light coming through it may be so modified as to affect the hues of your painting, tricking you into errors. A white umbrella will do; one which is neutral gray or opaque is better.

A wide-brimmed hat can prove invaluable, or, if you use dark eyeglasses, be sure that the lenses are neutral, not colored.

Blotters : Rags : Sponge -- Always have plenty of clean blotters within reach. Rags and paper tissues also have various uses. A sponge is extremely helpful not only when mounting paper, but for softening or removing offending areas and for scrubbing out high lights.

Pensils : Erasers : Knives -- As the artist often uses the pencil for laying-out his subject on his paper, he should keep a small assortment on hand. The degree known as HB, being medium, is good for all-around work, though much depends on whether the paper is smooth or rough, damp or dry. (Don't attempt to draw with a sharp point on paper while it is very damp; your pencil may cut right through.) For thumbnail or other preliminary sketches, a softer pencil -- 3B, for example -- is better; it is rapid, and permits very dark values. Some artists prefer charcoal to pencil, both for speed and breadth of effect, and because charcoal work can so easily be altered.

Two or three erasers of different kinds are also convenient, as are razor blades or a pocket knife.

Daylight Lamp -- If you plan to paint indoors, you should obtain one of the so-called "daylight" lamps. With this you can judge your colors reasonably well, even at night.

Hair Dryer -- When painting indoors, the impatient artist can speed up the drying of his work by means of an electric hair dryer, with its flow of either warm or cool air. A small fan is a good substitute.

Pliers -- When tube caps stick, heating them with a match or under the hot water faucet will usually free them. Pliers are sometimes of help, but don't break your tubes open!

These, then are the principal items of equipment. You may not need them all, yet remember that you will have handicaps enough in your work without the added one of trying to get along with too few, or too poor, materials.